Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Diseases
Abstract
Globally, coronary heart disease (CHD) is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity, especially in developing countries. Both marine and plants sources of omega-3 fatty acids has been shown to be beneficial in reducing CHD mortality. Beside of anti-arrhythmic effects, omega-3 has been shown anti-thrombotic and anti-atherosclerotic effect. In 2011, US population spent about 25 billion US dollar for omega-3 supplement; it is projected to be 35 billion US dollar in the year 2016. Several reviews on randomized controlled trial conclude that omega-3 fatty acids reduced plasma triglyceride level consistently in a dose-dependent fashion. Other beneficial effects on blood pressure, endothelial function and high density lipoprotein (HDL) level participate in lowering CHD mortality. American Heart Association (AHA) recommended routine fish consumption as secondary prevention in patient at risk. Omega-3 fatty acids role in primary prevention is inconclusive and need further investigation regarding cost-benefit and bleeding risk.Downloads
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References
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9. Assman G, Schulte H, von Eckardstein A. Hypertriglyceridemia and elevated lipoprotein(a) are risk factors for major coronary events in middle-aged men. Am J Cardiol. 1996;77:1179-84.
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15. Kroman N, Green A. Epidemiological studies in the Upernauik District, Greenland. Acta Med Scand. 1980;208:401-406.
16. Stone NJ. Fish consumption, fish oil, lipids, and coronary heart disease. Circulation. 1996;94:2337-40.
17. Kromhout D, Feskens EJ, Bowles CH. The protective effect of a small amount of fish on coronary heart disease mortality in and elderly population. Int J Epidemiol. 1995;24:340-5.
18. Kromhout D, Bosschieter EB, de Lezenne Coulander C. The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1985;312:1205-9.
19. Shekelle RB, Missell L, Paul O, et al. Fish consumption and mortality from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1985;313:820.Letter.
20. Dolecek TA Granditis G. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the multiple risk factor intervention trial (MRFIT). World Rev Nutr Diet. 1991;61:205-16.
21. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. Dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid and risk of fatal ischemic heart disease among women. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69:890-7.
22. Burr ML, Fehily AM, Gilbert JF, et al. Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: Diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet. 1989;2:757-61.
23. Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2002;106:2747–2757. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94.
24. Eritsland J, Arnesen H, Gronseth K, et al. Effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids on coronary artery bypass graft patency. Am J Cardiol. 1996;77:31-36.
25. Harris WS, Connor WE, Alam N, et al. Reduction of postprandial triglyceridemia in humans by dietary n-3 fatty acids. J Lipid Res. 1988;29:1451-60.
26. Grimsgaard S, Bonaa KJ, Hansen JB, et al. Highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in humans have similar triacylglycerol-lowering effects but divergent effects on serum fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66:6490659.
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28. Howe PR. Dietrary fats and hypertension: Focus on fish oil. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1997;827:339-52.
29. Morris MC, Sacks F, Rosner B. Does fish oil lower blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled trials. Circulation. 1993;88:523-33.
30. Appel LJ, Miller ER 3rd, Seidler AJ, et al. Does supplementation of diet with “fish oil” reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:1429-38.
31. Mori TA, Watts GF, Burke V, et al. Differential effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on vascular reactivity of the forearm microcirculation in hyperlipidemic, overweight men. Circulation. 2000;102:1264-9.
32. Agren JJ, Vaisanen S, Hanninen O, et al. Hemostatic factors and platelet aggregation after a fish-enriched diet or fish oil or docosahexaenoic acid supplementation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1997;57:419-21.
33. Mori TA, Beilin LJ, Burke V, et al. Interactions between dietary fat, fish, and fish oils and their effects on platelet function in men at risk of cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17:279-86.
34. Cohen MG, Rossi JS, Garbarino J, et al. Insights into the inhibition of platelet activation by omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Beyond aspirin and clopidogrel. Thromb Res. 2011;128(4):335-40.
35. Harris WS, Miller M, Tighe AP, et al. Omega-3 fatty-acids and coronary heart disease risk: Clinical and mechanistic perspectives. Atherosclerosis. 2008;197(1):12-24.
36. Mozzafarian D, Wu JH. Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: Effects on risk factors, molecular pathways, and clinical events. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58(20):2047-67.
37. Archer SL, Green D, Chamberlain M, et al. Association of dietary fish and n-3 fatty acid intake with hemostatic factors in the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18:1119-23.
38. Eritsland J, Arnesen H, Seljeflot I, Kierulf P. Long-term effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on hemostatic variables and bleeding episodes in patients with coronary artery disease. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 1995;6:17-22.
39. Wagner DD. New links between inflammation and thrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Bio. 2005;25:1321-1324.] + [Brown AA, Hu FB. Dietary modulation of endothelial function: Implications for cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73:673-86.
40. Mori T, Beilin L. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammation. Curr Athercoscler Rep. 2004;6:461-7.
41. Simopoulos AP. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J Am Coll Nutr. 2002;21:495-505.
42. Weylandt KH, Chiu CY, Gomolka B, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids and their lipid mediators: Towards an understanding of resolvin and protectin formation. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2012;97(3-4):73–82.
43. Massaro M, Scoditti E, Carluccio MA, De Caterina R. Basic mechanisms behind the effects of n-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2008;79(3-5):109–15.
44. Li Y, Kang J, Leaf A. Differential effects of various eicosanoids on the contraction of cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Prostaglandins. 1997;54:511-30.
45. Albert CM, Hennekens CH, O’Donnell CJ, et al. Fish consumption and risk of sudden cardiac death. JAMA. 1998;279:23-8.
46. Siscovick DS, Raghunathan TE, King I, et al. Dietary intake and cell membrane levels of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest. JAMA. 1995;274:1363-7.
47. de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, et al. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: Final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. 1999;99:779-85.
48. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: Results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto miocardico. Lancet. 1999;354:447-55.
49. Burr ML, Fehily AM, Gilbert JK, et al. Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death on myocardial reinfarction: Diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet. 1989;2:757-61.
50. Singh RB, Niaz MA, Sharma JP, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fish oil and mustard oil in patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction: the Indian experiment of infarct survival-4. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 1997;11:485-91.
51. Grimsgaard S, Bonaa KH, Hansen JB, et al. Effects of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on hemodynamics in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;68:52-9.
52. Kromhout D, et al. Fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease: do they really work? European Heart Journal. 2012;33:436-43.
53. Hallaq H, Smith TW, Leaf A. Modulation of dihydropyridine-sensitive calcium channels in heart cells by fish oil fatty acids. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1992;89:1760-4.
54. Pepe S, McLennan PL. Dietary fish oil confers direct antiarrhytmic properties on the myocardium of rats. J Nutr. 1996;126:34-42.
55. Kinoshita I, Itoh K, Nishida-Nakai M, et al. Antiarrhythmic effects of eicosapentaenoic acid during myocardial infarction-enhanced cardiac microsomal (Ca2+-Mg2+)-ATPase activity. Japan Circ J. 1994;58:903-12.
56. Billman GE, Kang JX, Leaf A. Prevention of ischemia-induced cardiac sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in dogs. Lipids. 1997;32:1161-8.
57. Black KL, Culp B, Madison D, et al. The protective effects of dietary fish oil on focal cerebral infarction. Prostaglandins Med. 1979;3:257-68.
58. Kris-Etherton PM, Taylor DS, Yu-Poth S, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(1 Suppl):179S-188S.
59. Kris-Etherton MK, et al. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acid and cardiovascular disease. Circ. 2002;106:2747-57.
60. Venturini D, Simao AC, Urbano MR, Dichi I. Effects of extra virgin olive oil and fish oil on lipid profile and oxidative stress in patients with metabolic syndrome. Nutrition. 2015;31:834-40.
61. Fit M, Covas MI, Lamuela-Ravent RM, et al. Protective effect of olive oil and its phenolic compounds against low density lipoprotein oxidation. Lipids. 2000;35:633–8.
62. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: Results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto miocardico. Lancet. 1999;354(9177):447–55.
63. Galan P, Kesse-Guyot E, Czernichow S, et al. Effects ofB vitamins and omega 3 fatty acids on cardiovascular diseases: A randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ. 2010;341:c6273.
64. Kromhout D, Giltay EJ, Geleijnse JM, Alpha Omega Trial Group n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(21):2015–26.
65. Tavazzi L, Maggioni AP, Marchioli R, et al. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2008;372(9645):1223–30.
66. Kumar S, et al. Long-term omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation reduces the recurrence of persistent atrial fibrillation after electrical cardioversion. Heart Rhythm. 2012;9:483-91.
67. Calder PC. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes. Nutrients. 2010 Mar;2(3):355–74.
69. Bergstrom, Danielson, Klenberg, and Samuelsson. The Enzymatic Conversion of Essential fatty Acids into Prostaglandins. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1964 Nov;239(11):PC4006-PC4008.
2. Piepoli MF, Hoes A, Agewall S, et al. 2016 European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Eur Heart J. 2016. [cited 2016 June 10]; Available from: http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2016/06/08/eurheartj.ehw106.long.
3. Harper CR, Jacobson TA. The fats of life: The role of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:2186-92.
4. Schultz H. Retail omega-3s sales to hit $34.7 billion in 2016, report predicts. 2012. [cited 2013 September 17]; Available from: http://www.nutraingredients-usa.com/Markets/Retail-omega-3s-sales-to-hit-34.7-billion-in-2016-report-predicts.
5. Jemal A, Ward E, Hao Y, Thun M. Trends in the leading causes of death in the United Stated, 1970-2002. JAMA. 2005;294:1255-9] + [Banegas JR, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Graciani A, et al.. Mortality attributable to cardiovascular risk factor in Spain. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57(suppl): S18-21.
6. World Health Organization. WHO fact sheet: Global status report on non-communicable disease 2014. WHO. 2014. [cited 2016 June 10]; Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs317/en/.
7. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA. 2001;285:2486-97.
8. Jeppesen J, Hein HO, Suadicani P, Gyntelberg F. Triglyceride concentration and ischemic heart disease: An eight-year follow-up in the Copenhagen Male Study. Circ. 1998;97:1029-36.
9. Assman G, Schulte H, von Eckardstein A. Hypertriglyceridemia and elevated lipoprotein(a) are risk factors for major coronary events in middle-aged men. Am J Cardiol. 1996;77:1179-84.
10. Cullen P. Evidence that triglycerides are an independent coronary heart disease risk factor. Am J Cardiol. 2000;86:943-9.
11. Austin MA, Hokanson JE, Edwards KL. Hypertriglyceridemia as a cardiovascular risk factor. Am J Cardiol. 1998;81:7B-12B.
12. Eckel H, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ. The metabolic syndrome. Lancet. 2005;365:1415-28.
13. Shepherd J, Betteridge J, Van Gaal L; on behalf of European Consensus Panel. Nicotinic acid in the management of dyslipidemia associated with diabetes and metabolic syndrome: A position paper developed by a European Consensus Panel. Curr Med Res Opin. 2005;21:665-82.
14. Dyerberg J, Bang HO, Stoffersen E, et al. Eicosapentaenoic acid and prevention of thrombosis and atherosclerosis? Lancet. 1978;2:117-119.
15. Kroman N, Green A. Epidemiological studies in the Upernauik District, Greenland. Acta Med Scand. 1980;208:401-406.
16. Stone NJ. Fish consumption, fish oil, lipids, and coronary heart disease. Circulation. 1996;94:2337-40.
17. Kromhout D, Feskens EJ, Bowles CH. The protective effect of a small amount of fish on coronary heart disease mortality in and elderly population. Int J Epidemiol. 1995;24:340-5.
18. Kromhout D, Bosschieter EB, de Lezenne Coulander C. The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1985;312:1205-9.
19. Shekelle RB, Missell L, Paul O, et al. Fish consumption and mortality from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1985;313:820.Letter.
20. Dolecek TA Granditis G. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the multiple risk factor intervention trial (MRFIT). World Rev Nutr Diet. 1991;61:205-16.
21. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. Dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid and risk of fatal ischemic heart disease among women. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69:890-7.
22. Burr ML, Fehily AM, Gilbert JF, et al. Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: Diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet. 1989;2:757-61.
23. Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2002;106:2747–2757. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94.
24. Eritsland J, Arnesen H, Gronseth K, et al. Effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids on coronary artery bypass graft patency. Am J Cardiol. 1996;77:31-36.
25. Harris WS, Connor WE, Alam N, et al. Reduction of postprandial triglyceridemia in humans by dietary n-3 fatty acids. J Lipid Res. 1988;29:1451-60.
26. Grimsgaard S, Bonaa KJ, Hansen JB, et al. Highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in humans have similar triacylglycerol-lowering effects but divergent effects on serum fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66:6490659.
27. Office of Nutritional Products, Labeling, and Dietary Supplements, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, US Food and Drug Administration. Letter responding to a request to reconsider omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease. Docket No. 91N-0103. February 8, 2002. Available at: http//www.cfsan.fda.gov/`dms/ds-ltr82.html. Accessed June 6, 2016.
28. Howe PR. Dietrary fats and hypertension: Focus on fish oil. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1997;827:339-52.
29. Morris MC, Sacks F, Rosner B. Does fish oil lower blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled trials. Circulation. 1993;88:523-33.
30. Appel LJ, Miller ER 3rd, Seidler AJ, et al. Does supplementation of diet with “fish oil” reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Arch Intern Med. 1993;153:1429-38.
31. Mori TA, Watts GF, Burke V, et al. Differential effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on vascular reactivity of the forearm microcirculation in hyperlipidemic, overweight men. Circulation. 2000;102:1264-9.
32. Agren JJ, Vaisanen S, Hanninen O, et al. Hemostatic factors and platelet aggregation after a fish-enriched diet or fish oil or docosahexaenoic acid supplementation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1997;57:419-21.
33. Mori TA, Beilin LJ, Burke V, et al. Interactions between dietary fat, fish, and fish oils and their effects on platelet function in men at risk of cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17:279-86.
34. Cohen MG, Rossi JS, Garbarino J, et al. Insights into the inhibition of platelet activation by omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Beyond aspirin and clopidogrel. Thromb Res. 2011;128(4):335-40.
35. Harris WS, Miller M, Tighe AP, et al. Omega-3 fatty-acids and coronary heart disease risk: Clinical and mechanistic perspectives. Atherosclerosis. 2008;197(1):12-24.
36. Mozzafarian D, Wu JH. Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: Effects on risk factors, molecular pathways, and clinical events. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58(20):2047-67.
37. Archer SL, Green D, Chamberlain M, et al. Association of dietary fish and n-3 fatty acid intake with hemostatic factors in the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18:1119-23.
38. Eritsland J, Arnesen H, Seljeflot I, Kierulf P. Long-term effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on hemostatic variables and bleeding episodes in patients with coronary artery disease. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 1995;6:17-22.
39. Wagner DD. New links between inflammation and thrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Bio. 2005;25:1321-1324.] + [Brown AA, Hu FB. Dietary modulation of endothelial function: Implications for cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73:673-86.
40. Mori T, Beilin L. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammation. Curr Athercoscler Rep. 2004;6:461-7.
41. Simopoulos AP. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J Am Coll Nutr. 2002;21:495-505.
42. Weylandt KH, Chiu CY, Gomolka B, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids and their lipid mediators: Towards an understanding of resolvin and protectin formation. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2012;97(3-4):73–82.
43. Massaro M, Scoditti E, Carluccio MA, De Caterina R. Basic mechanisms behind the effects of n-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2008;79(3-5):109–15.
44. Li Y, Kang J, Leaf A. Differential effects of various eicosanoids on the contraction of cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Prostaglandins. 1997;54:511-30.
45. Albert CM, Hennekens CH, O’Donnell CJ, et al. Fish consumption and risk of sudden cardiac death. JAMA. 1998;279:23-8.
46. Siscovick DS, Raghunathan TE, King I, et al. Dietary intake and cell membrane levels of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest. JAMA. 1995;274:1363-7.
47. de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, et al. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: Final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. 1999;99:779-85.
48. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: Results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto miocardico. Lancet. 1999;354:447-55.
49. Burr ML, Fehily AM, Gilbert JK, et al. Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death on myocardial reinfarction: Diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet. 1989;2:757-61.
50. Singh RB, Niaz MA, Sharma JP, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fish oil and mustard oil in patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction: the Indian experiment of infarct survival-4. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 1997;11:485-91.
51. Grimsgaard S, Bonaa KH, Hansen JB, et al. Effects of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on hemodynamics in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;68:52-9.
52. Kromhout D, et al. Fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease: do they really work? European Heart Journal. 2012;33:436-43.
53. Hallaq H, Smith TW, Leaf A. Modulation of dihydropyridine-sensitive calcium channels in heart cells by fish oil fatty acids. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1992;89:1760-4.
54. Pepe S, McLennan PL. Dietary fish oil confers direct antiarrhytmic properties on the myocardium of rats. J Nutr. 1996;126:34-42.
55. Kinoshita I, Itoh K, Nishida-Nakai M, et al. Antiarrhythmic effects of eicosapentaenoic acid during myocardial infarction-enhanced cardiac microsomal (Ca2+-Mg2+)-ATPase activity. Japan Circ J. 1994;58:903-12.
56. Billman GE, Kang JX, Leaf A. Prevention of ischemia-induced cardiac sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in dogs. Lipids. 1997;32:1161-8.
57. Black KL, Culp B, Madison D, et al. The protective effects of dietary fish oil on focal cerebral infarction. Prostaglandins Med. 1979;3:257-68.
58. Kris-Etherton PM, Taylor DS, Yu-Poth S, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(1 Suppl):179S-188S.
59. Kris-Etherton MK, et al. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acid and cardiovascular disease. Circ. 2002;106:2747-57.
60. Venturini D, Simao AC, Urbano MR, Dichi I. Effects of extra virgin olive oil and fish oil on lipid profile and oxidative stress in patients with metabolic syndrome. Nutrition. 2015;31:834-40.
61. Fit M, Covas MI, Lamuela-Ravent RM, et al. Protective effect of olive oil and its phenolic compounds against low density lipoprotein oxidation. Lipids. 2000;35:633–8.
62. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: Results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto miocardico. Lancet. 1999;354(9177):447–55.
63. Galan P, Kesse-Guyot E, Czernichow S, et al. Effects ofB vitamins and omega 3 fatty acids on cardiovascular diseases: A randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ. 2010;341:c6273.
64. Kromhout D, Giltay EJ, Geleijnse JM, Alpha Omega Trial Group n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(21):2015–26.
65. Tavazzi L, Maggioni AP, Marchioli R, et al. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2008;372(9645):1223–30.
66. Kumar S, et al. Long-term omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation reduces the recurrence of persistent atrial fibrillation after electrical cardioversion. Heart Rhythm. 2012;9:483-91.
67. Calder PC. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes. Nutrients. 2010 Mar;2(3):355–74.
69. Bergstrom, Danielson, Klenberg, and Samuelsson. The Enzymatic Conversion of Essential fatty Acids into Prostaglandins. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1964 Nov;239(11):PC4006-PC4008.
Published
2017-04-18
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How to Cite
Fonda, G., Pranata, R., & Deka, H. (2017). Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Diseases. Indonesian Journal of Cardiology, 37(4), 213-22. https://doi.org/10.30701/ijc.v37i4.586
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